Petra: The Rose-Red City

Nestled in the rugged desert canyons of southern Jordan, Petra stands as one of humanity’s most remarkable architectural achievements.

This ancient city, where magnificent facades are carved directly into vibrant rose-colored sandstone cliffs, earned its nickname “The Rose City” from the stunning hue of its rock formations.

Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 and elected as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007, Petra represents the pinnacle of Nabataean civilization and continues to captivate visitors from around the globe with its breathtaking beauty and archaeological significance.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore everything you need to know about Petra: its rich history, architectural marvels, cultural significance, and practical information for visitors seeking to experience this extraordinary ancient wonder.

Historical Timeline of Petra

Pre-Nabataean Period (Before 4th century BCE)

• The area was inhabited as early as 7000 BCE
• Edomites occupied the region during the Iron Age (1200-539 BCE)

Nabataean Foundation and Golden Age (312 BCE – 106 CE)

• 312 BCE: Established as the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom
• 168 BCE: King Aretas I mentioned in historical records as the first known Nabataean king
• 9 BCE – 40 CE: Reign of King Aretas IV, considered Petra’s greatest builder and the period of maximum prosperity
• 106 CE: Annexed by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan, becoming part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea

Roman and Byzantine Periods (106 CE – 7th century CE)

• 106-363 CE: Roman period brings new architectural elements and administrative functions
• 363 CE: Major earthquake damages many structures
• 4th-7th centuries CE: Byzantine period introduces Christian churches and mosaics
• 551 CE: Another significant earthquake causes substantial damage

Decline and Abandonment (7th-19th centuries)

• 7th century: Gradual decline following the Muslim conquest of the region
• 12th century: Briefly occupied by Crusaders who built a fort (now known as Al-Wu’eira)
• 13th-19th centuries: Largely abandoned except for nomadic Bedouin tribes
• Local Bedouin tribes (primarily the Bdoul tribe) continued to inhabit caves within Petra

Modern Rediscovery and Recognition

• August 22, 1812: Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt rediscovers Petra for the Western world
• 1929: First major archaeological excavations begin
• 1985: UNESCO designates Petra as a World Heritage Site
• 2007: Selected as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World

Location and Geography

Petra is located in the southwestern desert of Jordan, approximately 240 kilometers south of Amman (the capital) and 120 kilometers north of Aqaba (Jordan’s only coastal city). The ancient city sits at an elevation of around 900 meters above sea level in the Ma’an Governorate, near the modern town of Wadi Musa.

The site’s geography played a crucial role in its development and defense:

• Natural Protection: Surrounded by towering mountains and accessible primarily through narrow gorges, Petra was naturally defensible against invaders.
• Strategic Position: Located at the crossroads of major caravan routes connecting Arabia, Egypt, Syria, and the Mediterranean, making it an ideal trading hub.
• Geological Features: Situated in a basin among mountains of sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate rock formations that enabled its distinctive rock-cut architecture.
• Climate: Semi-arid climate with hot, dry summers and mild, relatively wet winters. Annual rainfall averages only 15 cm (6 inches).

The most famous geographical feature is the Siq – a dramatic natural entrance gorge stretching 1.2 kilometers. This narrow canyon, with walls soaring up to 80 meters high, was formed by natural geological forces and enhanced by the Nabataeans. The Siq’s twisting path creates a dramatic approach to the city, culminating in the breathtaking first glimpse of the Treasury (Al-Khazneh).

The Nabataean Civilization

The Nabataeans were a remarkable Arab people who established a powerful trading empire in the ancient Middle East. Understanding their civilization is essential to appreciating Petra’s significance:

Origins and Identity

• Originally nomadic Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula
• Gradually settled and established a kingdom centered on Petra by the 4th century BCE
• Spoke an early form of Arabic but wrote in Aramaic script
• Maintained a distinct cultural identity while absorbing influences from surrounding civilizations

Economic Prowess

• Masterful traders who controlled key routes for luxury goods including frankincense, myrrh, spices, textiles, and bitumen
• Developed an extensive trading network spanning from Yemen to Damascus and the Mediterranean
• Charged tolls and provided protection for caravans passing through their territory
• Accumulated vast wealth through trade, evidenced by Petra’s monumental architecture

Religion and Culture

• Polytheistic religion centered around nature deities
• Primary deity was Dushara (associated with mountains) and his consort Al-Uzza
• Practiced religious ceremonies in high places and natural settings
• Left few written records but expressed cultural values through architecture and art
• Gradually adopted Hellenistic cultural elements after Alexander the Great’s conquests

Political Organization

• Monarchy ruled by kings who often took the name “Aretas” or “Obodas”
• Maintained independence through diplomatic skill, including strategic alliances with larger powers
• Developed a sophisticated administrative system to manage trade networks and water resources

Technological Innovations

• Pioneered advanced water management techniques (discussed in detail below)
• Developed distinctive architectural styles blending indigenous traditions with Hellenistic and Roman influences
• Created fine pottery with distinctive thin-walled, egg-shell ceramics
• Skilled in metallurgy and stone carving

Petra’s Ingenious Water Management System

One of the most remarkable aspects of Petra—and a key reason for its success in a desert environment—was its sophisticated water management system. This engineering marvel allowed a city of up to 30,000 people to thrive in an arid region receiving less than 15 cm of rainfall annually:

Water Collection Infrastructure

• Dams: Constructed at least 25 dams throughout the surrounding wadis (valleys) to control flash floods and collect water
• Terraces: Built agricultural terraces on hillsides to capture rainfall and prevent soil erosion
• Cisterns: Carved more than 200 cisterns throughout the city to store collected water
• Reservoirs: Created large open reservoirs with capacities of thousands of cubic meters

Water Distribution Network

• Ceramic Pipes: Installed ceramic pipe systems to distribute water throughout the city
• Channels: Carved water channels along the sides of the Siq and other pathways
• Sedimentation Basins: Designed basins to filter water before storage
• Pressure Systems: Created pressurized water systems to deliver water uphill in certain areas

Flood Protection Measures

• Diversion Tunnels: Constructed a 90-meter tunnel to divert floodwaters around the Siq
• Dams: Strategically placed dams to control flash floods that could threaten the city
• Stepped Channels: Built stepped waterways to slow water flow and reduce erosion

Technological Innovations

• Waterproof Plaster: Developed special waterproof lime plaster to line cisterns and channels
• Filtration Systems: Created sand filters to purify water before consumption
• Water Lifting Devices: Evidence suggests they used mechanical devices to lift water to higher elevations

Archaeological research continues to reveal new aspects of this remarkable system. In 2016, satellite imagery and drone surveys helped archaeologists discover previously unknown water management features around Petra, demonstrating the extensive scale of Nabataean hydraulic engineering.

Major Monuments and Structures in Petra

Petra contains over 800 documented monuments spread across approximately 264 square kilometers. Here are the most significant structures that define this ancient wonder:

The Siq

The primary entrance to Petra, this natural sandstone gorge stretches for 1.2 kilometers with walls reaching 80 meters in height. The Nabataeans enhanced this natural formation by:

• Carving niches for religious symbols
• Installing a sophisticated water channel system along both sides
• Creating a paved road with raised sidewalks
• Adding dams and diversion tunnels to protect from flash floods

The dramatic journey through the Siq, with its twisting path and towering walls, was intentionally designed to create a sense of anticipation before the spectacular reveal of the Treasury.

The Treasury (Al-Khazneh)

The most iconic structure in Petra, the Treasury stands 40 meters high and features an elaborate façade carved directly into the rose-colored sandstone:

• Construction: Carved in the 1st century CE during the reign of King Aretas IV
• Purpose: Likely served as a royal tomb or temple, despite local legends about hidden treasure (which gave it its modern name)
• Architectural Style: Represents the pinnacle of Nabataean architectural achievement, blending Nabataean elements with Hellenistic influences
• Design Elements: Features two tiers with columns, pediments, capitals, and figurative carvings including eagles, griffins, mythological figures, and the goddess Isis
• Preservation: Exceptionally well-preserved due to its protected position within the cliff face

Recent archaeological research using ground-penetrating radar has revealed a large ceremonial platform buried beneath the plaza in front of the Treasury, suggesting it was the focal point for important religious ceremonies.

The Street of Façades

Immediately beyond the Treasury, this area features numerous tomb façades carved into the cliff face:

• Contains over 40 tomb entrances of varying sizes and designs
• Represents burials of middle-class Nabataeans
• Shows the evolution of Nabataean tomb architecture from simple designs to more elaborate façades
• Many tombs feature stepped crowns (known as “crow steps”) characteristic of early Nabataean architecture

The Theater

Carved directly into the mountainside around 1st century CE:

• Capacity for approximately 4,000 spectators
• Uniquely cut directly into the rock, unlike Roman theaters that were typically built up from the ground
• Features three horizontal sections (diazomata) with 45 rows of seats
• Oriented to protect audiences from the sun during performances
• Partially carved through earlier Nabataean tombs, demonstrating changing priorities in urban planning

The Royal Tombs

A series of massive façades carved into the eastern cliff face overlooking the city center:

• The Urn Tomb: Likely built around 70 CE for King Malchus II, later converted to a Byzantine church in 446 CE
• The Silk Tomb: Named for its remarkably colorful sandstone patterns with swirls of red, white, and yellow
• The Corinthian Tomb: Features a design similar to the Treasury but on a smaller scale
• The Palace Tomb: The largest façade with a width of 49 meters and four distinct entrances
• The Sextus Florentinus Tomb: The only tomb in Petra with a Latin inscription, built for the Roman governor around 130 CE

The Great Temple Complex

One of the largest freestanding structures in Petra, covering over 7,000 square meters:

• Built in the late 1st century BCE
• Features a monumental stairway, lower and upper temenos (sacred areas), and a theater-like structure
• Includes elaborately carved elephant-head capitals unique in Nabataean architecture
• Recent excavations suggest it may have functioned as a government building or royal audience hall rather than a religious temple
• Contains a small theater with seating for approximately 600 people

The Monastery (Ad-Deir)

Located high in the mountains and accessible only by climbing 800 rock-cut steps:

• Constructed in the 3rd century BCE
• Measures 47 meters wide by 48 meters high, making it even larger than the Treasury
• Features a more austere design than the Treasury, reflecting an earlier architectural style
• Originally likely served as a temple to the deified Nabataean king Obodas I
• Later used as a Christian chapel during the Byzantine period (hence its modern name)
• Offers spectacular views of the surrounding Wadi Araba valley

Qasr al-Bint

The main freestanding temple in Petra’s city center:

• Built around 30 BCE during the reign of King Obodas III
• Dedicated to the primary Nabataean deity Dushara
• Features walls standing 23 meters high (among the tallest surviving structures in Petra)
• Constructed of massive sandstone blocks with an interior once adorned with marble and stucco
• Surrounded by a large sacred precinct with a monumental gateway

The Byzantine Church

Discovered in 1990 and excavated in the 1990s:

• Built in the 5th century CE and rebuilt after a fire in the 6th century
• Features remarkably preserved mosaic floors depicting animals, seasons, and mythological figures
• Contains marble chancel screens and columns
• Includes side rooms with additional mosaics
• Provides evidence of Petra’s continued importance during the Byzantine period

The Colonnaded Street

The main thoroughfare through the city center:

• Constructed during the 1st century CE
• Lined with columns and covered porticoes for shops and public activities
• Featured sophisticated drainage systems beneath the paving stones
• Connected major public buildings including markets, temples, and administrative structures
• Represents Roman urban planning influences after the annexation

High Places of Sacrifice

Two major high places (open-air sanctuaries) on mountaintops:

• Jabal Madhbah: Features an altar platform, ceremonial dining area, and sacred obelisks
• Jabal al-Khubtha: Offers panoramic views and contains religious installations
• Both include water basins for ritual purification and channels for sacrificial blood
• Connected to the city by processional stairways with religious niches
• Demonstrate the importance of nature worship in Nabataean religion

Cultural Impact and Global Significance

Petra’s influence extends far beyond archaeology, permeating modern culture and continuing to inspire awe worldwide:

Literary and Artistic Inspirations

• Poetry: Inspired John William Burgon’s 1845 poem describing Petra as “a rose-red city half as old as time”
• Literature: Featured in Agatha Christie’s “Appointment with Death” and numerous travel memoirs
• Painting: Depicted by David Roberts in the 1800s, whose lithographs introduced Petra to Victorian Europe
• Photography: One of the world’s most photographed archaeological sites, appearing in countless publications

Film and Television Appearances

• Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989): The Treasury famously appeared as the entrance to the temple housing the Holy Grail
• Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009): Featured as an ancient Transformer hiding place
• Mortal Kombat: Annihilation (1997): Used as a filming location
• The Mummy Returns (2001): Inspired set designs
• Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977): Used as a filming location
• An Idiot Abroad (2010): Featured in Karl Pilkington’s visit to Jordan
• Numerous documentaries by National Geographic, BBC, Discovery Channel, and other networks

Tourism Impact

• Currently Jordan’s most visited tourist attraction, drawing over one million visitors annually before the COVID-19 pandemic
• Tourism accounts for approximately 20% of Jordan’s GDP, with Petra being the primary draw
• Provides significant employment for local communities, particularly the Bdoul Bedouin tribe
• Faces challenges balancing tourism development with conservation needs

Conservation Challenges

• Erosion from natural weathering accelerated by climate change
• Structural damage from past earthquakes and water infiltration
• Tourism pressures including vibrations from foot traffic, touch damage, and waste management
• Urban development pressures in surrounding areas
• Limited resources for comprehensive conservation efforts

The Bedouin Connection

The relationship between Petra and the local Bedouin tribes, particularly the Bdoul tribe, represents an important but often overlooked aspect of the site’s history:

Historical Habitation

• The Bdoul Bedouin lived within Petra’s caves and tombs for generations
• Created a unique way of life adapted to the ancient structures
• Developed extensive knowledge of the site’s hidden areas and water sources
• Maintained oral traditions about Petra’s history and significance

Relocation and Modern Role

• In 1985, following UNESCO designation, most Bdoul families were relocated to the purpose-built village of Umm Sayhoun
• Many continue to work within Petra as guides, vendors, and site guardians
• Maintain traditional crafts including silverwork, weaving, and sand art
• Share unique cultural perspective with visitors through storytelling and demonstrations

Cultural Knowledge

• Preserve traditional ecological knowledge about local plants, animals, and water sources
• Maintain distinct musical traditions and folklore connected to the site
• Offer insights into traditional navigation techniques through Petra’s complex landscape
• Provide living connection to the region’s historical trade routes and patterns

Recent Archaeological Discoveries

Ongoing research continues to reveal new aspects of Petra, demonstrating that much remains to be learned about this ancient city:

Monumental Platform (2016-2018)

• Archaeologists discovered a massive platform measuring 56 by 49 meters near the city center
• Built using sophisticated construction techniques with no parallels in the Nabataean world
• May have supported a significant yet-to-be-discovered monumental building
• Suggests Petra’s city center was more architecturally elaborate than previously thought

Ceremonial Pool Complex (2016)

• Excavations revealed a large pool complex and garden near the city center
• Featured an island pavilion within an ornamental pool
• Demonstrated sophisticated hydraulic engineering for decorative purposes
• Suggests Petra contained luxury amenities comparable to other major cities of the Roman world

Satellite Mapping Revelations (2016)

• Satellite imagery and drone surveys identified a previously unknown monumental structure
• Located approximately 800 meters south of the main city
• Measures 56 by 49 meters with an interior platform and columns
• Suggests Petra’s urban footprint was significantly larger than previously documented

Scrolls and Written Records

• Carbonized papyrus scrolls discovered in 1993 provided rare written records from Petra
• Contained information about property transactions and legal agreements
• Offered insights into Nabataean names, social structure, and economic activities
• Continues to be studied using advanced imaging techniques to reveal more text

Underwater Archaeological Survey (2019)

• Marine archaeologists identified a potential Nabataean port facility at Aila (modern Aqaba)
• Provides evidence of Petra’s connection to maritime trade networks
• Suggests the Nabataeans were more involved in sea trade than previously recognized

Petra Conservation Efforts

Preserving Petra for future generations requires ongoing, coordinated conservation efforts:

Key Organizations

• Petra Archaeological Park (PAP): The official management authority overseeing daily operations and implementation of conservation plans
• Department of Antiquities of Jordan: Provides governmental oversight and archaeological expertise
• Petra National Trust (PNT): Jordan’s oldest non-governmental organization dedicated to Petra’s preservation
• UNESCO: Provides international guidance, technical support, and monitoring
• American Center of Oriental Research (ACOR): Supports research and conservation projects
• Getty Conservation Institute: Has partnered on specific conservation initiatives

Major Conservation Initiatives

• Siq Stability Project: Monitoring and addressing rockfall risks in the main entrance gorge
• Tomb Façades Conservation: Documenting and treating weathering damage on major monuments
• Water Management Systems Restoration: Reviving aspects of the ancient water collection system to manage modern drainage issues
• Site Management Plan: Comprehensive strategy addressing tourism flow, infrastructure, and conservation priorities
• Risk Mapping Project: Using GIS and remote sensing to identify areas at greatest risk
• Community Engagement Programs: Involving local communities in preservation efforts

Technological Applications

• 3D Laser Scanning: Creating detailed digital records of monuments for monitoring changes over time
• Drone Surveys: Accessing difficult areas for documentation and monitoring
• Non-Destructive Testing: Using ground-penetrating radar and other technologies to study structures without excavation
• Digital Reconstruction: Creating virtual models showing how structures originally appeared
• Weather Monitoring Stations: Tracking environmental conditions affecting stone preservation

Sustainable Tourism Initiatives

• Visitor Management Systems: Controlling tourist numbers and flow patterns
• Alternative Trail Development: Distributing visitor pressure away from the most fragile areas
• Interpretation Improvements: Enhancing educational materials to promote respectful visitation
• Waste Management: Addressing pollution and litter issues
• Local Economic Development: Supporting sustainable livelihoods connected to conservation

Visiting Petra Today

For travelers planning to experience Petra firsthand, here’s essential practical information:

Getting There

• From Amman: Approximately 3-hour drive south via the Desert Highway or longer scenic route via Kings Highway
• From Aqaba: Approximately 2-hour drive north
• Public Transportation: Daily JETT buses connect Amman to Wadi Musa
• Organized Tours: Available from major tourist centers throughout Jordan
• Nearest Airport: King Hussein International Airport in Aqaba (125 km) or Queen Alia International Airport in Amman (240 km)

Entry Information

• Opening Hours: 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM summer, 6:00 AM to 4:00 PM winter
• Entrance Fees (as of 2023):
  • One-day ticket: 50 JD (approximately $70 USD)
  • Two-day ticket: 55 JD
  • Three-day ticket: 60 JD
  • Jordan Pass: Includes Petra entry and visa fees (starting from 70 JD)
• Visitor Center: Located at the entrance with exhibitions, maps, and information

Best Times to Visit

• Seasons: March-May and September-November offer the most pleasant temperatures
• Time of Day: Early morning (6-8 AM) for fewer crowds and better photography
• Duration: Minimum one full day, but two or three days recommended to fully explore
• Special Events: Petra by Night (Monday, Wednesday, Thursday) offers candlelit experience

What to Expect

• Walking Distance: 8-20 kilometers depending on which sites you visit
• Terrain: Mostly uneven ground with significant elevation changes
• Facilities: Restrooms available at the visitor center and several locations throughout the site
• Food and Drink: Restaurants at the visitor center and several cafes within the site
• Transportation Options: Horse rides available from entrance to Siq (included in ticket but tipping expected), horse-drawn carriages through the Siq (additional fee), camels and donkeys within the site (additional fee)

Essential Tips

• Wear Appropriate Footwear: Comfortable hiking shoes with good traction
• Sun Protection: Hat, sunscreen, and sunglasses essential year-round
• Water: Carry plenty of water, especially in summer months
• Respect: Dress modestly out of respect for local culture
• Photography: No drones allowed; tripods may require special permission
• Guides: Official guides available at the visitor center (recommended for deeper understanding)
• Accessibility: Limited accessibility for visitors with mobility challenges, though some areas can be reached by carriage

Nearby Accommodations

• Luxury Options: Mövenpick Resort Petra, Petra Marriott Hotel
• Mid-Range: Petra Guest House, Petra Moon Hotel
• Budget: Rocky Mountain Hotel, Seven Wonders Bedouin Camp
• Unique Experience: Bubble Luxotel Petra offers transparent dome rooms with stargazing opportunities

The Enduring Legacy of Petra

Petra stands as a testament to human ingenuity, artistic vision, and cultural exchange. This ancient wonder continues to captivate visitors with its remarkable beauty and archaeological significance, while challenging researchers with its many unsolved mysteries.

As conservation efforts and archaeological research continue, our understanding of Petra grows deeper. Yet even with modern technology and scientific methods, we’ve only begun to uncover the full story of this extraordinary city carved from rose-red stone.

For visitors fortunate enough to walk through the Siq and witness the Treasury’s façade emerging from the shadows, Petra offers more than just a glimpse into the past—it provides a transformative experience that connects us to the remarkable achievements of an ancient civilization that thrived in one of Earth’s most challenging environments.

Whether you’re drawn by its architectural marvels, fascinated by its ingenious water management systems, or simply captivated by the dramatic beauty of its rose-colored cliffs, Petra remains one of humanity’s most precious cultural treasures—a rose-red city that truly stands half as old as time.